5 Theories of Criminal Behaviour

An overview of key criminological theories — spanning from the 18th to the 20th century — which have offered explanations for why people commit crime.

1) Rational Choice Theory:

Initially formed as an economic theory in 1776, economist and philosopher Adam Smith argued that people make cost-efficient choices based on their own self-interests. Based upon these same principles, this concept has since been applied within the realms of sociology and criminology to explain causes of deviant behaviour.

Rational Choice Theory proposes that a person considering a criminal act will use rational choice to evaluate the pain and pleasure received as a result. For instance, if the profit or benefit they are set to gain outweighs the pain or punishment it would bring, then the act can be justified in the eyes of the perpetrator. Similarly, if the cost or risk is perceived as too high — or the reward too insignificant — an individual will choose not to engage in the crime.

This argument resonates closely with the hedonistic concept of ‘utilitarianism’, which is mostly associated with pioneering philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. In his 1861 publication entitled ‘Utilitarianism’, Mill maintained that human beings strive to make decisions and perform actions which will maximise the happiness and well-being of the majority.

Inevitably, Rational Choice Theory has faced significant scrutiny within academic literature, as it relies on the assumption that all criminals are able to demonstrate rationality in their decision-making processes. For instance, it does not make allowances for those who commit offences while enduring mental health issues, while intoxicated on drugs or alcohol, or while in distressed emotional states — all of which may impede a person’s ability to think rationally.

2) Biological Positivism:

Biological Positivism dominated criminological literature during the late 18th century. In a shift from the earlier field of Classical Criminology, which focused specifically on the crime itself and punishment, Biological Positivism emerged with more of a focus on the offender — specifically their physical attributes.

Initially credited to Italian criminologist and physician Cesare Lombroso, the positivist approach maintained the existence of a ‘criminal type’, which could be determined by taking into account a person’s appearance. In his 1876 work entitled ‘The Criminal Man’, Lombroso drew upon specific features— including skull size, nose shape, tattoos, and even included various illustrations of what he deemed to be ‘the criminal body’. Based on his findings, Lombroso believed that people could be separated into categories of criminals vs non-criminals, which nowadays would be largely refuted as prejudice or stereotyping.

Lombroso’s positivist views also faced criticism in the early mid-19th century, during a time when his theory was peaking in popularity. Alphonse Bertillon — the French policeman renowned for inventing the mugshot in 1888—agreed that physical features could disadvantage a person, thus making them more likely to turn to crime, but he disagreed that those features were a direct cause of criminality.

Since Lombroso’s era, other biological theories on crime have continued to develop and emerge. However, in contrast to examining a person’s physicality, more contemporary approaches have tended to explore hormonal imbalances, neurological disorders, and genetically inherited characteristics as factors which may increase the likelihood of someone engaging in deviant behaviour.

3) Differential Association Theory:

Originally formed by criminologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939, this theory proposes that people learn techniques, motives and attitudes of criminal behaviour by interacting with others who commit crime. When an individual’s exposure to law-breaking behaviour outweighs their exposure to law-abiding behaviour, engaging in criminal behaviour becomes normalised and therefore easier to do.

This theory somewhat overlaps with Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, which was later formed in the 1970s, although has been most commonly applied to children. It states that young people learn by observing and imitating the actions of others around them, therefore placing emphasis on the importance of environmental factors in shaping normal or criminal behaviour in adulthood.

Similarly, Social Control Theory — developed in the 1960s by American sociologist Travis Hirschi — takes the stance that people will most likely conform to acceptable social norms and values if they have had positive experiences of socialisation. For instance, if a person forms attachments to people and institutions — such as relatives, friends, workplaces and schools — then social normality is maintained and therefore individuals will feel less inclined to commit criminal offences as doing so would disturb the social order for themselves and others around them. Alternatively, crime will take place when a person’s bonds to society become weak or broken due to trauma or a lack of positive social interactions, as there is resultantly an absence of responsibility or obligation to others.

4) Routine Activities Theory:

Emerged as a key criminological theory in 1979 within the writings of psychologist Lawrence Cohen and criminologist Marcus Felson. They emphasised that three specific elements are required in order for a criminal offence to take place, and all three must be present at that time:

1 - A motivated offender
2 - A suitable target
3 - The absence of supervision by a responsible guardian/adult

As well as outlining that specific conditions are required for a criminal act to occur, this theory has shown value in its contribution to methods of crime prevention. In particular, it has proven influential in ‘situational crime prevention’ strategies, which involves designing or changing aspects of the environment where a crime may occur, rather than attempting to change the behaviour of the offender.

For instance, by installing technology such as CCTV cameras, humans and objects which may have been potential targets are protected and therefore no longer suitable to criminals. Another example would be the establishment of neighbourhood watch schemes, which have been another way of implementing a watchful eye in residential areas. This in turn eliminates two of the above-listed prerequisites (a suitable target and the absence of supervision) therefore preventing an offence from taking place.

5) General Theory of Crime:

Developed by criminologist Michael Gottfredson and sociologist Travis Hirschi in the 1990s, the General Theory of Crime builds upon their previous Social Control Theory, which has already been outlined above.

More specifically, this theory draws upon the idea of self-control as an explanation for criminal behaviour. Gottfredson and Hirschi theorised that individuals who develop greater levels of self-control during childhood would be less likely to engage in deviant behaviour as adolescents, and therefore would also be less likely to be arrested or convicted as adults. Instead, by exerting self-control, they could expect to:

Achieve greater success in education → Obtain better employment prospects → Have higher incomes → Ultimately experience better mental and physical health throughout their lives.

The General Theory of Crime ultimately emphasises the significant influence of childhood experiences and environments in shaping later behaviour. This concept is also often referred to as the Self-Control Theory.